Download:
Abstract
Looking back over 50 years of studying social insects, this article identifies eight outstanding problems in social insect biology: 1) Can life cycles of individual organisms serve as a reliable model for the colony cycle?; 2) Does the production of workers and sexuals in social hymenopterans fit the bang-bang model?; 3) Do females in social hymenopterans have a smaller individual behavioural repertory than those of solitary hymenopterans?; 4) Is memory in termite workers and soldiers limited to the sensory level?; 5) Do some social wasps and/or bees demonstrate coordinated colony defense?; 6) Is there an induced defense in termite colonies at the level of caste proportions?; 7) Are social wasps passing through a period of global population decrease?; and 8) Is there a relationship between the level of primary production in the habitat and the proportion of social species among the insects?
498 407- Alford, R. A., & Richards, S. J. (1999). Global amphibian declines: A problem in applied ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 30, 133-165. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.30.1.133 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.30.1.133
- AntWeb. (2024). Version 8.112. California Academy of Science, https://www.antweb.org. Revisada 2 octubre 2024.
- Baillie, J., Hilton-Taylor, C., & Stuart, S. N. (2004). 2004 IUCN Red list of threatened species: A global species assessment. IUCN, Cambridge. 191 p. https://www.iucnredlist.org/
- Beck, L. (1971). Bodenzoologische Gliederung und Characterisierung des amazonischen Regenwaldes. Amazoniana, 3, 69-132. (Obra citada por Fittkau y Klinge 1973).
- Bevan, E. (1838). The honey bee: Its natural history, physiology, and management. John van Voorst, Londres.
- Bourke, A. F. G., & Franks, N. R. (1995). Social Evolution in Ants. Princeton University Press, Princeton. 529 p. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691206899 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691206899
- Bradley, T. J., Briscoe, A. D., Brady, S. C., Contreras, H. L., Danforth, B. N., Dudley, R., Grimaldi, D., Harrison, J. F., Kaiser, J. A., Merlin, C. N., Reppert, S. M., Vandenbrooks, J. M., & Yanoviak, S. P. (2009). Episodes in insect evolution. Integrative & Comparative Biology, 49(5), 590-606. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icp043 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icp043
- Brian, M. V. (1978). Production ecology of ants and termites. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 125(4), 272 p. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197804000-00022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197804000-00022
- Butler, C. (1609). The feminine monarchie. Joseph Barnes, Oxford. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.33805
- Buttel-Reepen, H. (1903). Die stammesgeschichtliche Entstehung des Bienenstaates, sowie Beiträge zur Lebensweise der solitären und sozialen Bienen (Hummeln, Meliponen, etc.). G. Thieme, Leipzig. 138 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.11069 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.11069
- Buttel-Reepen, H. (1915). Leben und Wesen der Bienen. Friedrich Vieweg, Braunschweig. 300 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-663-04557-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-663-04557-1
- Collins, J. P., & Crump, M. L. (2009). Extinction in Our Times: Global Amphibian Declines. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 304 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195316940.001.0001
- Couvillon, M. J. (2021). Communication: Honey Bee Dances. p. 256-260 En: Starr, C.K. (ed.). Encyclopedia of social insects. Springer, Cham, Suiza. 1049 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_58 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_58
- Dirzo, R., Young, H. S., Galetti, M., Ceballos, G., Isaac, N. J. B., & Collen, B. (2014). Defaunation in the Antropocene. Science, 345, 401-406. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251817 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251817
- Eberhard, W. G.; Wcislo, W. T. (2012). Plenty of room at the bottom? American Scientist, 100(3), 226-233. https://doi.org/10.1511/2012.96.226 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1511/2012.96.226
- Emery, C. (1915). La vita delle formiche. Bocca, Torino. 251 p.
- Engel, M. S., Rasmussen, C., & González, V. H. (2021). Bees: Phylogeny and classification.In: C. K. Starr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_14
- Escherich, K. (1906). Die Ameise, Schilderung ihrer Lebensweise. Friedrich Vieweg, Braunschweig. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.10482 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.10482
- Escherich, K. (1909). Die Termiten oder weiβen Ameisen. Werner Klinkhardt, Leipzig.
- Farris, S. M., Schulmeister, S. (2010). Parasitoidism, not sociality, is associated with the evolution of elaborate mushroom bodies in the brains of hymenopteran insects. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 278(1707), 940-951. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2161
- Fittkau, E. J., & Klinge, H. (1973). On biomass and trophic structure of the central Amazonian rain forest ecosystem. Biotropica, 5(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.2307/2989676 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2989676
- Grassé, P. P. (1959). La reconstruction du nid et les coordinations interindividuelles chez Bellicositermes natalensis et Cubitermes sp. La théorie de la stigmergie: Essai d’interprétation du comportement des termites constructeurs. Insectes Sociaux, 6, 41-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02223791 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02223791
- Greene, A. (1984). Production schedules of vespine wasps: An empirical test of the bang-bang optimization model. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 57, 545-568.
- Guimarães-Silva, A., Carvalho, G. C. A., Miranda, A. C. De, Contrera, F. A. L., & Rêgo, M. M. C. (2021). Temporal memory in foraging of the stingless bee Melipona subnitida (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini). Sociobiology, 68(2), e5863. https://doi.org/10.13102/sociobiology.v68i2.5863 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13102/sociobiology.v68i2.5863
- Hallmann, C. A.; Sorg, M., Jongejans, E., Siepel, H., Holfland, N., Schwan, H., Stenmans, W., Müller, A., Sumser, H., Hörren, T., Goulson, D., & Koon, H. De. (2017). More than 75 per cent decline over 27 years in total insect biomass in protected areas. PLoS ONE, 12(10), e0185809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185809 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185809
- Harvell, C. D. (1990). The ecology and evolution of inducible defenses. Quarterly Review of Biology, 65(3), 323-340. https://doi.org/10.1086/416841 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/416841
- Haverty, M. I. (1977). The proportion of soldiers in termite colonies: A list and a bibliography (Isoptera). Sociobiology, 2, 199-216.
- Hegh, E. (1922). Les termites. Vol. 1. Partie générale. Imprimerie Industrielle & Financière, Bruselas.
- Hermann, H. R. (1982). Social Insects. Vol. 1-4. Academic Press. Nueva York. 437-491.
- Hölldobler, B. (1980). Canopy orientation: A new kind of orientation in ants. Science, 210(4456), 86-88. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.210.4465.86 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.210.4465.86
- Hölldobler, B.; & Wilson, E. O. (2008). The superorganism. W.W. Norton, Nueva York. 544 p.
- Houlahan, J. E., Findlay, C. S., Schmidt, B. R., Meyer, A. H., & Kuzmin, S. L. (2000). Quantitative evidence for global amphibian population declines. Nature, 404, 752-755. https://doi.org/10.1038/35008052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/35008052
- Huber, F. (1814). Nouvelles observations sur les abeilles. 2da edición. Vol. 1-2. J. J. Paschoud, París, pp.362-479.
- Huber, P. (1810). Recherches sur les moeurs des fourmis indigènes. J. J. Paschoud, París. 328 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.49948 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.49948
- Jeanne, R. L. (2021). Swarm-founding wasps. In: C. K. Starr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_123
- Korb, J. (2021). Termites. In: C. K. Starr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_126 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_126
- Latreille, P. A. (1802). Histoire naturelle des fourmis, et receuil de mémoires et d'observations sur les abeilles, les araignées, les faucheurs, et autres insectes. Théophile Barrois, París. 445 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.11138 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.11138
- Lindauer, M. (1971). Communication among social bees. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 161 p. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674424531 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674424531
- Maidl, F. (1934). Die Lebensgewohnheiten und Instinkte der staatenbildenden Insekten. Fritz Wagner, Viena. 823 p.
- McClenaghan, B., Schlaf, M., Geddes, M., Mazza, J., Pitman, G., McCallum, K., Rawluk, S., Hand, K. & Otis, G. W. (2019). Behavioral responses of honey bees, Apis cerana and Apis mellifera, to Vespa Mandarinia marking and alarm pheromones. Journal of Apicultural Research, 58, 141- 148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2018.1494917 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2018.1494917
- Merritt, N. R. C., & Starr, C. K. (2010). Comparative nesting habits and colony composition of three arboreal termites (Isoptera: Termitidae) in Trinidad & Tobago, West Indies. Sociobiology, 56, 611-622.
- O’Donnell, S. (2021). Brain development and brain evolution. En: C.K. Starr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects (pp. 131-133). Springer, Cham, Suiza. 1049 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_163
- O’Neill, K. M. (2001). Solitary wasps. Cornell University Press, Ithaca. 406 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501737367
- Oster, G. F., & Wilson, E. O. (1978). Caste and ecology in the social insects. Princeton University Press, Princeton 352 p.
- Passera, L., Roncin, E., Kaufmann, B., & Keller, L. (1996). Increased soldier production in ant colonies exposed to intraspecific competition. Nature, 379, 630-631. https://doi.org/10.1038/379630a0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/379630a0
- Purchas, S. (1657). A theatre of politicall flying-insects. Thomas Parkhurst, Londres. 207 p.
- Réaumur, R. A. F. de. (1740). Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des insectes. Vol. 5. Imprimerie Royale, París.
- Réaumur, R. A. F. de. (1742). Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des insectes. Vol. 6. Imprimerie Royale, París.
- Roff, D. A. (2002). Life history evolution. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts. 527 p.
- Sánchez-Bayo, F., & Wyckhuys, K. A. G. (2019). Worldwide decline in the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological Conservation, 232, 8-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020
- Schultheiss, P., Nooten, S. S., Wang, R., Wong, M. K., Brassard, F., & Guénard, B. (2022). The abundance, biomass, and distribution of ants on Earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(40), p.e2201550119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2201550119 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2201550119
- Sladen, F. W. L. (1912). The humble bee -- its life-history and how to domesticate it. Macmillan, Londres. 283 p.
- Souza, H. J. De., & Delabie, J. H. C. (2021). Ecosystem engineers: Ants and termites. En: C. K. Starr, (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects (pp. 347-352). Springer, Cham, Suiza. 1049 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_186 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_186
- Srinivasan, A. (2018). Busy bodies. New Yorker, 17 Sept: 26-31.
- Starr, C. K. (2006). Steps toward a general theory of the colony cycle in social insects. En V. E. Kipyatkov (Ed.), Life cycles in social insects (pp. 1-20). St Petersburg University Press, San Petersburgo.
- Starr, C. K. (2021a). Encyclopedia of social insects. Springer, Cham, Suiza. 1049 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1
- Starr, C. K. (2021b). Colony cycle. En C.K. Starr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects (pp. 225-230). Springer. Cham, Suiza. 1049 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_24
- Starr, C. K. (2021c). Superorganism concept. En C.K. Starr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social insects (pp. 913-918). Springer, Cham, Suiza. 1049 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28102-1_122
- Stearns, S. C. (1992). The evolution of life histories. Oxford University Press, Londres. 249 p.
- Stearns, S. C. (2000). Life history evolution: successes, limitations, and prospects. Naturwissenschaften, 87, 476-486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001140050763 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s001140050763
- Stork, N. E. (1987). Guild structure of arthropods from Bornean rain forest trees. Ecological Entomology, 12(1), 69-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1987.tb00986.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1987.tb00986.x
- Thorley, I. (1744). Melissologia, or the female monarchy, being an enquiry into the nature, order and government of bees. John Thorley, Londres. 206 p.
- Tschinkel, W. R. (1991). Insect sociometry, a field in search of data. Insectes Sociaux, 38, 77-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01242715 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01242715
- Wasmann, E. (1915). Das Gesellschaftsleben der Ameisen. Vol. 1. Aschendorff, Münster. 413 p.
- Wepprich, T., Adrian, J. R., Ries, L., Wiedemann, J., & Haddad, N. M. (2019). Butterfly declines over 20 years of systematic monitoring in Ohio. PLoS ONE, 14(7), e0216270. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216270
- Wheeler, W. M. (1910). Ants: their structure, development and behavior. Columbia University Press, Nueva York. 663 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.1937 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.1937
- Wheeler, W. M. (1911). The ant colony as an organism. Journal of Morphology, 22, 307-325. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.1050220206 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.1050220206
- Wheeler, W. M. (1923). Social life among the insects. Harcourt, Brace, Nueva York. 375 p.
- Wheeler, W. M. (1928). The social insects: their origin and evolution. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, Londres. 378 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.140774 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.140774
- Wilson, E. O. (1971). The insect societies. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 548 p.
- Wilson, E. O. (1987). The causes of ecological success: the case of ants. Journal of Animal Ecology, 56, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.2307/4795 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/4795
- Wilson, E. O. (1990). Success and dominance in ecosystems: The case of social insects. Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe. 104 p.
- Wilson, E. O. (2020). La conquista social de la tierra. DeBolsillo, Barcelona. 384 p.
How to Cite

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Christopher K. Starr